Культурные аспекты торговых связей Египта со странами Красноморского Бассейна, Индии и Китая в I-XVI вв. н. э. :

Краткое описание

INTRODUCTION...3

I CHAPTER DEVELOPMENT OF TRADE AND CULTURAL LINKS BETWEEN EGYPT AND THE COUNTRIES OF RED SEA BASIN, INDIA IN THE PHARAONIC TIMES AND IN THE PERIOD OF THE PTOLEMAIS RULE...9

II CHAPTER Development of trade and cultural contacts between egypt and countries of red sea basin and India in Roman period...51

III CHAPTER Trade and cultural relations of Egypt

AND COUNTRIES OF THE RED SEA BASIN, INDIA AND CHINA IN THE BYZANTINE PERIOD...91

IV CHAPTER TRADE AND CULTURAL RELATIONS BETWEEN EGYPT AND COUNTRIES OF THE RED SEA BASIN, INDIA AND CHINA IN ISLAMIC PERIOD...99

Conclusion...144

APENDIX...149

Figure List...149

Bibliography...205
Введение

INTRODUCTION

THE OVERALL CHARACTERISTIC OF THE WORK Actuality of research

Geographical factor was crucial for development of the country in all periods of the Egyptian state history. Thanks to her geographical position Egypt was a crossroad of economical and political contacts between civilizations of the Mediterranean region, Near East and Africa. Egypt was very active in trade with such remote countries of Oicumena as India and China starting from the rule of the Ptolemies until XVI century.

However Egyptian ports on the Mediterranean and Red seas were both trade centers and hearths of very active exchange of ideas, places of meeting of different cultural traditions bearers. Since the period of the Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies rule when Egypt became powerful thalassocratia, port cities became outposts of cross-cultural and cross confessional dialog where ideology have been developed which outspread through the whole Africa and the Mediterranean region.

That is why study of the trade links of Egypt in our opinion is a subject of a special interest both from historical and cultural points of view. Although if a cultural aspect of the Mediterranean cities functioning is studied in details the influence of trade with India and China on the new ideas of Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and medieval Egypt is studied insufficiently. This gap in our knowledge could be fulfilled by scrutinizing of all sources concerning Egypt ports on the Red sea, which was an area of a very active interaction between Egyptian, India and China cultures.

Degree of scientific elaboration of the subject

The single problems of the subject "Trade contacts of Egypt with countries situated in the area of the Red sea, India and China" was studied in several monographic researches and articles. For instance a history of sea trade of Egypt in Pharaonic, Ptolemaic and roman periods is studied

1 О

in a monograph of El-Abadi and Abdel Halim . In this book results of the authors archaeological excavations at the site Wadi Gawasis (the Red sea coast) are published. Here an anchorage of vessels sailing to Punt was situated. A very important place in the book is devoted to a description of an expedition to Punt which took a place in a reign of the queen Hatshipsut (XVIII dynasty of the New Kingdom); a very strong cultural output of the expedition is thoroughly studied.

In the book by L. Casson3 one of the chapter is devoted to the study of development of the sea trade in the Red and Mediterranean seas in Roman and Byzantine times. A very important contribution of this book is a commented translation of "Periplus of Eretreian Sea" . This itinerary, which was compiled in the Roman period by a Greek traveler, describes a way from the Red sea to the Indian Ocean. The Periplus mapped all ports and anchorages with mentioning of distances between them and winds favorable for sailing in different periods of a year. A great attention L. Casson focused on study of cultural contacts of Greek-Roman world with countries of the Orient.

1 Abadi M. Egypt from Alexander. Cairo, 1985;Abadi M. Farmer and the Land in Egypt. -Cairo, 1974

2 Abdel Halim The Red Sea.- Alexandria, 1993

3 Casson L. Ships and Seafaring in ancient times.-NewYork, 1970. See also the other work of this scientist on this problem: Casson L. Egypt, Africa, Arabia and India: Patterns of Seaborne Trade in the First Cebtury// Bulletin of American Society of Papyrologists.-1984.-Vol.XXI.№l-4; Casson L. Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World.-Princeton,1971; Casson L.The Periplus maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary.-Princeton,1989, Casson L. The Ancient Mariners Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times.- New York, 1999; Casson L. Romes trade with the East (the Sea Voyage to Africa and India.- New York, 1980

4 Casson L.The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary.-Princeton,1989; Casson L. General Commentary on the Periplus Maris Erythraei.- New York, 1974

English archaeologist W.M.F. Petrie5 after conducting several seasons of archaeological excavations at Memphis advanced a hypothesis that a colony of Indian merchants existed in the city under the rule of the Ptolemais and later in the Roman period. He emphasized that Indian tradesmen kept the religious and cultural traditions of their mother country. Some finds let Petrie supposed that an area of the Indian merchants settling down stretched up to the Fayoum oasis.

In the researches by Leveque devoted to a problem of the cultures synthesis in the Hellenistic period the author focused on cultural links between Egypt and India during the Ptolemais6.

In the book by Warmington7 and in the work by Wheeler8 the whole picture of the Roman Empire and India interaction is drowning. Trade links of Egypt and India is thoroughly studied by Johnson9. Rostovzev scrutinized a subject of cultural influence of Egypt on the art of Persian and India10.

Shoff11, M.P. Charlsvorsa12, M. Rashke13 and others examined sea and land trade of the Roman Empire and the Orient in works. J.G. Breasted14 attended his works to the sea trade and cultural contacts between different parts of the Byzantine Empire and also between the state as a whole and foreign countries (India in particular) with reference

5 Petrie W.M.F. The Palace of Apres (Memphis II).-L.,1909; Petrie W.M.F. Roman Ehnasya (Heracleopolis Magna) 1904.-1.Д905; Petrie F.M.F. Amulets.-L.,1914

6 Leveque P. The Hellenistique World. -L., 1969

7 Warmington E. The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India.-L.,1974

8 Wheeler M. Rome beyond the Imperial Frontiers.-L.,1954

9 Jonson A. Roman Egypt to the Reign of Diocletian. An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome.-Baltimore,1936

10 Rostovtzev M.I. Foreign Commerce of Ptolemaic Egypt// Journal of Economic and Business History.-cambrige,1932.-Vol.4

uSchoff W. Parthian Stations of Isidor of Charax: an Account of the Overland Trade Route between

the Levant and India in the First Century B.C.-Filadelfia,1914

12Charlesworth M.P. Trade Routes and Commerce of the Roman Empire.-Cambrige,1924

13Rashcke M.G. Papyrological Evidence for Ptolemaic and Roman Trade with India//Proceedings of

the XXIV International Congress of Papyrologists.-Oxf.,1975;Rashcke M.G. New Studies in Roman

Commerce with the East// Auftieg und Niedergang der roemischen Welt.-B.,1956

14Breasted J. H. History of Egypt.- L.,1909

to the Islamic period of Egypt history. The sea trade with India was researched by C. Taufik, S. Ahmed15, A. Battler16

Subject of the present research is cultural relations between Egypt and the countries of the Red sea basin, India and China in I-XVI AD in the context of development of trade links between Egypt countries of the above mentioned area

The present thesis is aimed at study of processes of cultural interaction between Egypt and the countries of the Red sea basin, India and China in I-XVI AD in the process of development of the sea trade in the Red sea and Indian ocean. Another aim of the research is the study of the port cities of the Red sea coast as centers of active cultural synthesis

The main objectives of the dissertation are:

- To determine main phases of the trade between Egypt and countries of the Red sea basin, India and China in I-XVI AD.

- To scrutinize archaeological sources concerning history of the Red sea port cities, which were, centers of different cultural traditions interactions.

Methodological background of the work Opinions of anthropologists-diffusionists (A. Grebner, L. Frobenius, W. X. Rivers, T. Heerdal and others), who paid their main attention to cultural contacts between different nations and who considered that it was the most important (sometimes cardinal) source of their cultural development, are the methodological basis of the work.

15Ahmed S., Tawfik S. History of Egyptian civilization from Ancient Ages till - Arabic Conquer.-

Cairo, 1975

16 Battler Alfred G. The Arab conquers Egypt. (Arabic edition, Cairo, 1999)

Methods Of research: comparative and iconographical analysis of sources. Overall conclusions are made on the basis of culturological and social psychological researches

Sources for the thesis research

- Results of archaeological excavations on the Red sea shore

- Written sources - works of Greek, Roman and Arab geographers and historians;

- Researches of Egyptian and foreign scholars, devoted to different problems of sea trade and cultural links between Egypt and countries of the Red sea basin, India and China in I-XVI AD.

Scientific hypothesis

We suppose that the supremacy of intolerable to another world outlook and strict religious systems was the main reason of a low level of cultural contacts between Egypt, India and China (especially during Byzantine and Arabian periods of Egyptian history). Certainly, religions have been changing throughout the history, but they systematically explained the structure of the world and rules of human activities and created the picture of the world. So, some kind of cultural synthesis was very difficult. It is an explanation of the fact that artifacts, reflecting such kind of synthesis, are found rarely. Moreover, apparently, there was no interest to each other between the Egyptians and the people of India and China. However, exactly trade relationships helped to establish cultural contacts between Egypt, India, China and the countries of the Red sea basin.

Scientific newness and theoretical significance of

the work:

For the first time in the contemporary cult urology a large-scale analysis of the interrelation and interaction of Egypt with cultures of the Red sea basin, India and China in Roman, Byzantine and Arab periods was carried out. Theoretical significance of the work is determined by the fact that the author reconstructed the process of a cultural synthesis, which took place in Red sea coast ports after thorough analysis of written sources. The great importance of the work is determined by the fact that archaeological data accumulated during archaeological excavations at Quseir el-Qadim (Myos Hormos) was introduced to scholars for the first time.

Practical importance of the work:

The data and results of the work could be used for

- Further historical researches of sea trade and cultural links between the Red sea basin, India and China in I-XVI AD;

- Culturological studies devoted to theoretical understanding of such topics as interrelations and interactions between different cultures in Ancient and Medieval times;

Lecturing and writing of appropriate chapters of books for high schools in humanities.

I CHAPTER

Development of Trade and Cultural links

between Egypt and the Countries of Red

Sea Basin, India in the Pharaonic Times

and in the period of the Ptolemais rule.

The history of Egypt is considered a continuous chain of events and battles between the civilizations - the new one and the declined one. Egypt is distinguished by its ability to understand all the races and the colors of human, the different civilization. Egypt mixed them and concludes a new Egyptian civilization depending on what all, that has been preceded, but dyeing. This civilization has Egyptian shape and spirit.

In our opinion, in order to control the chronology of the origin subject of this research - the movement of the trade in the Red Sea between Egypt and the other countries either in the south of the Red Sea or the Mediterranean countries, it is necessary to put a brief clear image of the historic events passed by Egypt. Of special interest are countries which ruled Egypt and conducted the trade relations or had a direct influence by consuming or by saving security. One of the main topics is to discover the lines of the ancient trade. We have a huge amount of proofs that Egyptians in the Ptolemaic and the Roman period did not make anything new but completing the trade works between the ports of the Red Sea like they did since the Pharaonic period. The main evidence of this statement is depictions on the relieves from the walls of the

Hatshepsut mortal temple in Deir el-Bahary. The trade expedition to the mysterious land Punt is represented there17.

Unfortunately, a long period extending from the Pharaonic time until the Islamic period in Egypt is neglected by the Egyptians themselves. The question of trade relation between Egypt and countries from the Red Sea region is not sufficient described in the historical narrative sources and studied in scientific literature18.

Pharaonic period

Let us start our description of the cultural aspect of the trade relations between Egypt and neighborhood countries of the Red Sea region since the pharaonic period. As it was mentioned the depictions at the Hatshepsut' temple in Deir el-Bahari contain the evidence on the existing of the trade connections between Egypt and the land Punt at that period. The problem of localization of the land Punt is the most sophisticated in the Egyptological literature. Despite of the great value of this land to the Egyptians, their descriptions of the nature and characteristics of the land were so vague and scanty that it became difficult to us to determine its precise location. The Punt had a great importance for Egyptians because it was main the source of the "antyw" or frankincense. This valuable material was used in the religious ceremonies and funeral rites as a main content of the Egyptian conception of the hereafter.

According to the scientists' conception the Puntkes were probably related to the same race from which the Egyptians themselves were originally descended19. This conception has an origin in the explanation of the representation of the Puntites on the Egyptian monuments. The

17 Abdel Halim The Red Sea.- Alexandria,, pp.94-97. Concerning the edition of the relives see: Mariette A. Deir-el-Bahari: Doc.topogr., hist, et ethnogr.-Leipzig,1977, pl.5.

18 Abdel Halim The Red Sea.- Alexandria, 1993, pp.23-25

19 Salim H. The Ancient Egypt, vol. 13.-Cairo, 2002, pp.718-719

10

Pimtites on these representation are depicted with the same physical characteristics and features as ancient Egyptians.

In the present chapter we would like to mention several ours consideration on the problem of localization and description of the land Punt. First of all we summarized all the information concerning this land ,that preserved in the sources and scientific literature. Among the main sources are depiction of the Punt and Puntites on the relieves from the mortal temple of the queen Hatshepsut in Deir el-Bahari. Also we compared the essential features of these representations with the descriptions of classical writers concerning the coastal regions of the Red sea and the gulf of Aden. Also we brought into consideration the modern information regarding these regions . After that we tried to examine the various stages of Egypt-Punt relationships through the Pharaonic history. We studied the essential characteristics and nature of these relationships in order to understand their culturological value. And, finally, we studies the anthropological aspect of the problem. We made comparative analysis of the facial appearance, traditions and customs, mentality of the ancient Egyptians and the modern inhabitants of Eritrea and Somali land regions21. We did it in view to illustrate the origin of the relations between Egypt and Punt and to trace how far such relationships could go back.

Concerning to the definition of the geographical location of Punt we summarized the Egyptological literature concerning this problem. All these studies can be divided into two main categories. The first one contains the literature with the general approaches to this problem and

20 According to different opinions on the localization of the land Punt see: Herzog R. Punt. -Gliickstadt,1968,pp.25-54.

21 For example such evidences mentioned in the following works: Schweinfurth G. Au coeur de l'Afrique, 1868-1971.-Paris, 1875; Bissing Fr.W. Alteste agyptische und sudanesische Heiligtiimer// Forschungen und Fortschritte.-Berlin, 1929.

11

description of that vast region throughout the various stages of Pharaonic history.

The others concerned to special study of the representations on the walls of the temple at Deir El Bahari, or the "Frankincense terraces" as it was called by the ancient Egyptians themselves.

A. Mariette declared that the Punt should be located in the Somali region . He located it on the both sides of the Red sea around the district of Bab El Mandab. The other Egyptologists held the view that Punt extended only on the African Coast of the Red Sea. They supposed that Punt was not a name of a fixed land but a name of people .

The pioneer among them was Breasted24. In his studies he stated that Punt extended towards the coast from Sawakin to Massawa. Maspero tried to conciliate between these different points of view. He believed that Punt was a vast area on the African coast of the Red Sea, from Egypt in the north to cape Guardafui to the south. He suggested that Punt was situated on the African coastal area of the Red Sea in the equatorial region, especially Somali .

The last of these views belongs to Abdel Halim26. He shared the general conception that toponym "Punt" designated different location during different historical periods. First of all it belonged to the African coast of the Red Sea (from Qena to Aswan). Then it gradually extended towards the south in concordance with extension of the Egyptian geographical exploration. Finally, it included the whole African coast of the Red Sea till the cape Guardafui .

22 Mariette A. Deir-el-Bahari: Doc.topogr., hist, et ethnogr.-Leipzig,1977, pl.5. See the observations on Mariette's conseption: Herzog R. Punt. -Gluckstadt,1968,pp.25-35;

23 Herzog R. Punt. -Glttckstadt,1968,pp.35-40.

24 Breasted J.H. Ancient records of Egypt.- Chicago 1906,pp. 19-21.

25 Maspero J., Wiet G. Materiaux pour servir a la geographic de L'Egypte, MIFAO 36,1919.

26 Abdel Halim The Red Sea.. .,p.36.

27 ;

' ibid, p.37. 12

Abdel Halim suggested that the northern limit of Punt may coincides with that of the growing of frankincense trees28. As to the various views about the location of "Punt of Deir El Bahari" we found that these views confined its location to the coasts of Eritrea and Somali land. Maspero located the place to which the fleet of Hatshipsut moored at the river that was called "Elephants River" in classical times29. Geographically it is on the northeastern coast of Somalia or another river in the neighborhood.

Maspero suggested that the location at which the fleet of Hatshepsut landed may situated between Djibouti and Barbara (Ethiopia)30. While Admiral Ballard declared that it might be in Tajura Bay. Also he had the opinion that it may be at the Zola or Annseley bay in Eritrea where the ancient classical city of Adulis was situated.

To discuss the views concerning the location of Punt of Deir El-Bahari we adopted a method that depends chiefly on the study of the characteristics of Punt as it was represented on the walls of Deir-EI Bahari temple. We can summarize these characteristics as following:

(1) It must be a coastal region lying directly on the coast or on the mouth of a river near the seashore where ebony trees grew. Date or palm-trees and frankincense trees grow close to ebony trees. The best place for it should be as close as possible to the seashore.

(2) Giraffes and baboons are expected to be found in that specific region or in its neighborhood.

(3) The sea creatures. There are kinds of sea creatures, which are typical for the Red sea and the Indian Ocean. Especially the lobster, which is called the "Penurious"

28 ibid, p.38.

29 Herzog R. Punt. -Gliickstadt,1968,pp.35-38

30 ibid.

13

(4) Its inhabitants are of different races. We have at least 3 races: 1) the ruling race or the Puntites who resembled the Ancient Egyptians in physical characteristics and features; 2) the Negroes; 3)the race called on the Egyptian monuments Irem. The last one may be the Galala who resembled the Puntites to a great extent as they descended from the Hermitic race and for this reason they can be hardly discerned from the Puntites.

Let us to discuss the various places assumed to be the geographical location of Punt:

1- As for Southern Arabia as a possible localization is concerned it seems to be very problematic. We knew from the descriptions of classical writers that frankincense trees did not grow on the shores of Yemen, but in the far hinterland. In addition the giraffe, which was represented in its natural habitat in the Egyptian scene, is a pure African animal, not attested in an Asiatic country either in the past or at present.

2- The localization of Punt on the "both sides of the straits of Bab el Mandeb is also unlikely. The sentence "hr gs wy wadwr" does not mean on both sides" but "on the side" of (the Red Sea). The form that Lieblein translated as "the Land of the Gate" was never found in Egyptian texts31.

3- Concerning the African coast north of Bab el Mandeb Strait, the descriptions of classical writers did not mention anything about incense till the bay of Assab where they mentioned myrrh but not frankincense32.

Definition of the location of Punt on the Northern Shore of Somaliland:

After we have excluded the regions north of Bab el Mandeb as possible localization of the Land Punt we suggest to discuss its location

31 Abdel Halim The Red Sea...,p.8.

32Ahmed Badawi: Herodotus.- Cairo, 1959,p. 158.

14

on the coasts of Somalia south of the straits. The only place which Maspero referred to and I agree with, concerning the landing place of Hatshipsut fleet, is the region around the modern town of Alul - about 40 miles west of cape Guardafui. This opinion has through a number of evidences, which can be summarized as follows.

(1) It is deduced from the descriptions of classical writers (Herodotus, Strabo) of the coast of Somaliland that frankincense is produced in that region with plentiful quantities and of the best kind. The town of Alulae still exports frankincense, ivory and shells.

(2) There is a lagoon near Alula, which is called nowadays "Galwein", a Somali phrase meaning "the great swamp". This name reminds us the nature of the frankincense region depicted on the walls of Deir el Bahari. According to representations inhabitants built their huts on poles probably to avoid the swamps on one hand and to take refuge from wild animals. This lagoon may offer a suitable harbor for the Egyptian fleet. There is a small river called Elephants River, by classical authors. This River is called now "Khor-Gal We in" and is navigable to a distance of 4 miles. That enables the Egyptians to penetrate in the interior to be as near as possible to the frankincense trees, moreover the word "Elephant" is used till now as a name of a huge rock33.

Penetrating into the sea adjacent to Alula's, the Somalis call it "Fil-Ka" which means "the elephant"34 because it resembles a recumbent elephant.

(3) The arrival of the Egyptians took place during the spring, as the nests of birds among the trees are full of eggs. This season is coincided with the natural conditions in North East Somaliland. It is the rain season, the small rivers are flooded with water, a condition which allow the ships

33 Casson L. Romes trade with the East (the Sea Voyage to Africa and India.- New York, 1980, p. 44.

15

to moor safely in the lagoons. In "Galwein" lagoon boats can penetrate more easily by means of these rivers into the interior. Spring is also the season of the incision and collecting of incense trees in these regions. The Egyptians were represented in the relieves of Deir El Bahari carrying small baskets in which they collected the sap of the franking35.

The Egyptian texts appreciated greatly "fresh frankincense" (cntyw w3g), the texts of Deir el Bahari tell us that they obtained "the first harvest".

(4) Concerning the animals which Hatshepsut mission brought from Punt. Baboons (cynocephali) most probably lived in these places in ancient times as it is a mountainous place which suited for these animals. Especially there is a place, close to Alula which was called "cynocephalus" in classical times. According to Strabo the giraffe was "bred" in the north coast of Somalia. This illustrates the way by which the ancients overcame the hardship of bringing this lowland animal across the coastal highlands of Somalia36.

(5) The mentioning of Greco-Egyptian names of places and gods by classical authors as place-names in the region, which extends from Batiala to Alula's may denote existing of Greek Egyptian commercial settlements in these places. Such as Daphnon, Isis, Niles, Cynocephalus. These settlements may reflect Pharaonic pre-activity in the vicinity.

(6) The Penurious together with the sea creatures, that were depicted on the walls of Deir El-Bahari are still live in a great numbers in the waters of Alula's.

For the reasons mentioned above, the district which extends from Batiala to Alula's on north Somalia may be the place called by the

34 Abdel Halim The Red Sea...,p. 214

35 Abdel Halim The Red Sea...,p. 19.

36 Morton P.R. History from the Sea, Shipwreck and Archaeology.- Lids 1989, p.63; The History of Egyptian Navy...,p. 23-26.

16

Egyptians "Frankincense terraces' of Punt" and the harbor where Hatshipsut fleet moored. It was possible situated in a small bay of Galwein, close to Alula's .

The trade relation with Punt in the Pharaonic times

From the remotest times, the incense trade flourished on the Red Sea coasts, probably because of the proximity of the greatest market of this trade in Egypt. Immigrants from Arabia to Africa crossed the Bab el Mandeb straits and settled on the coast of Somaliland where they exploited this profitable incense trade. As Egypt was the greatest markets for this item, it may be inferred that these immigrants established fortified commercial settlements or colonies along the coast of the Red sea towards the borders of Egypt38. Perhaps the inhabitants of these fortified settlements were the intermediaries referred to by the inscriptions of Deir El- Bahari who monopolized the incense trade and raised its price.

2. Ptolemaic Period

A Brief Historical revue

The conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 ВС is considered the end of the Pharaonic period and the beginning of the Greco-Roman period (fig.l). After the association of Philip the Macedonian, Alexander was born, when he reigned, he unified the Greek cities and began to carry out his father's plan by fighting the Persians on 334 ВС.

The Persians were behaving hastily and bad managing39 therefore this huge empire has declined in front of the Greek directed by Alexander the Great, what prove the geniality of this man. After occupying of Asia Minor he began to move towards Syria and Egypt for the economic

37 Abdel Halim The Red Sea...,p.25.

38 Casson L. The Ancient Mariners Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times.-New York, 1999, p.41.

17

Список литературы